Natural history and Reproduction( mammal )
Tagged: animal, animals, bird, mammalThe hallmarks of the mammalian level of organization are advanced reproduction and parental care, behavioral flexibility, and endothermy (the physiological maintenance of a relatively constant body temperature independent of that of the environment, allowing a high level of activity). Within the class, ecological diversity has resulted from adaptive specialization in food acquisition, habitat preferences, and locomotion. Throughout the past 65 million years, mammals have been the dominant animals in terrestrial ecosystems and important in nonterrestrial communities as well. The earliest mammals were small, active, predaceous, and terrestrial or semiarboreal. From this primitive stock mammals have radiated into a wide spectrum of adaptive modes against the background of the diverse environment of the Cenozoic Era (the last 65 million years). Branches of the ancestral terrestrial stock early exploited the protection and productivity of the trees, whereas other lineages added further dimensions to the mammalian spectrum by adapting to life beneath the ground, in the air, and in marine and freshwater habitats.
Reproduction
Estrus and other cycles
In reproductively mature female mammals, an interaction of hormones from the pituitary gland and the ovaries produces a phenomenon known as the estrous cycle. Estrus, or “heat,†typically coincides with ovulation, and during this time the female is receptive to the male. Estrus is preceded by proestrus, during which ovarian follicles mature under the influence of a follicle-stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary. The follicular cells produce estrogen, a hormone that stimulates proliferation of the uterine lining, or endometrium. Following ovulation, in late estrus, the ruptured ovarian follicle forms a temporary endocrine gland known as the corpus luteum. Another hormone, progesterone, secreted by the corpus luteum, causes the endometrium to become quiescent and ready for implantation of the developing egg (blastocyst), should fertilization occur. In members of the infraclass Eutheria (known as placental mammals), the placenta, as well as transmitting nourishment to the embryo, has an endocrine function, producing hormones that maintain the endometrium throughout gestation. If fertilization and implantation do not occur, a phase termed metestrus ensues, in which the reproductive tract assumes its normal condition. Metestrus may be followed by anestrus, a nonreproductive period characterized by quiescence or involution of the reproductive tract. On the other hand, anestrus may be followed by a brief quiescent period (diestrus) and another preparatory proestrus phase. Mammals that breed only once a year are termed monestrous and exhibit a long anestrus; those that breed more than once a year are termed polyestrous. In many polyestrous species the estrous cycle ceases during gestation and lactation (milk production), but some rodents have a postpartum estrus and mate immediately after giving birth. The menstrual cycle of higher primates is derived from the estrous cycle but differs from estrus in that when progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum ceases, in the absence of fertilization, the uterine lining is sloughed. In anthropoids other than humans, a distinct period of “heat†occurs around the time of ovulation. Monotremes lay shelled eggs, but the ovarian cycle is similar to that of other mammals. The eggs are predominantly yolk (telolecithal), like those of reptiles and birds. Young monotremes hatch in a relatively early stage of development and are dependent upon the parent (altricial). They reach sexual maturity in about one year. The reproduction of marsupials differs from that of placentals in that the uterine wall is not specialized for the implantation of embryos. The period of intrauterine development varies from about 8 to 40 days. After this period the young migrate through the vagina to attach to the teats for further development. The pouch, or marsupium, is variously structured. Many species, such as kangaroos and opossums, have a single well-developed pouch; in some phalangerids (cuscuses and brush-tailed possums), the pouch is compartmented, with a single teat in each compartment. The South American caenolestids, or rat opossums, have no marsupium. The young of most marsupials depend on maternal care through the pouch for considerable periods, 13 to 14 weeks in the North American, or Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana). Young koalas are carried in the pouch for nearly 8 months, kangaroos to 10 months.
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